Stoicism is a philosophy that has captured the interest of thinkers and practitioners for centuries. It offers a framework for managing emotions, achieving tranquility, and living in harmony with nature through the art of control—controlling not the external world, but one’s own mind and reactions. In this article, we’ll explore the origins of Stoicism, the cultures that influenced it, and the key figures associated with the movement. We will also delve into the central principles of Stoic philosophy and examine parallels between Stoicism and other philosophical or religious traditions.

Country, Culture, and Time Period

Stoicism was born in ancient Greece but flourished during the Roman era, becoming one of the most influential schools of thought in Western philosophy. It originated in Athens around 300 BCE and later found prominence in the Roman Empire, where it was embraced by statesmen, soldiers, and emperors alike. 

Athens was the intellectual capital of the ancient world, home to philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Stoicism grew out of this vibrant intellectual atmosphere, drawing inspiration from earlier schools like Cynicism and Platonism. Stoicism emerged during the Hellenistic period, an era marked by the spread of Greek culture and ideas across the Mediterranean following the conquests of Alexander the Great. This period was characterized by great social upheaval, as traditional Greek city-states lost their independence and individuals searched for new ways to find stability and meaning. Still, Greek culture emphasized rationality and virtue, ideals that Stoicism refined by making them the basis for inner peace and control over one’s destiny. For the Greeks, philosophy was not just theoretical—it was meant to be lived. The founder of the Stoic school of thought was a philosopher named Zeno (334-262 BCE). Zeno, born in the Greek-speaking city of Citium (modern-day Cyprus), moved to Athens after being shipwrecked. Inspired by the teachings of Socrates and the Cynic philosopher Diogenes, Zeno established his own school around 300 BCE. He taught in the Stoa Poikile (the “Painted Porch”), from which the philosophy derives its name. His students, known as Stoics, focused on achieving eudaimonia (flourishing) through reason, virtue, and acceptance of fate.

Roman Stoicism

By the 1st century BCE, Stoicism was adopted by the Romans, who found it particularly useful in addressing the challenges of governing and living under an empire. Stoic ideas of resilience and self-discipline resonated with Roman values of duty, honor, and practical wisdom. While the philosophy retained its Greek roots, the Roman interpretation emphasized pragmatism—adapting Stoicism to personal and political life. The transition to Roman Stoicism began with figures such as Panaetius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who adapted Stoicism to fit the Roman mindset. The Roman Stoics concentrated less on abstract metaphysics and more on practical ethics. This phase of Stoicism lasted into the 3rd century CE, and it is primarily through Roman authors that Stoicism survived into modern times.

Philosophy of Stoicism

Stoicism is often summarized by its focus on the art of control—specifically, controlling what is within our power while accepting what is not. Stoicism divides all aspects of life into two categories: things within our control, such as thoughts, emotions, actions, and those outside our control such as other people’s opinions, circumstances, the past, and future events. The Stoic goal is to focus energy on what can be controlled and accept the rest with equanimity.

Another stoic tenant is the concept of living according to nature. Stoicism teaches that humans are part of the natural order and should live in harmony with it. This involves aligning personal values with reason and the pursuit of virtue. The four cardinal virtues of Stoicism are: wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance.

1. Wisdom: The ability to make sound judgments.

2. Courage: Facing difficulties without fear.

3. Justice: Treating others fairly and with respect.

4. Temperance: Exercising self-restraint and moderation.

Apatheia (Freedom from Passion)

One way that stoicism teaches us self control is the idea of apatheia, or freedom from passion. Stoicism distinguishes between healthy emotions (e.g., joy, caution) and unhealthy passions (e.g., anger, fear). Apatheia is the state of inner calm where a person is no longer dominated by destructive emotions. Two additional concepts can aid in our freedom from unhealthy passions: accepting fate and remembering death. Amor fati, love of fate, encourages embracing whatever life brings, including suffering and hardship. Instead of merely accepting fate, Stoics learn to love their fate as a necessary part of existence. On the other hand, Stoics also frequently contemplate their own mortality. The stoic maxim memento mori, or remember death, is a reminder to do so. Reflecting on the impermanence of life encourages gratitude and mindful living in the present moment.

Parallels with Other Philosophical and Religious Traditions

Though Stoicism is distinct in its own right, it shares similarities with other schools of thought across cultures and religions.

Cynicism

The Cynic movement was a school of ancient Greek philosophy that emerged in the 4th century BCE, with its most prominent figure being Diogenes of Sinope. Cynics believed in living in accordance with nature, rejecting societal conventions, material wealth, and luxury. Their philosophy emphasized self-sufficiency (autarkeia), simplicity, and virtue as the path to happiness. They sought to expose the hypocrisy and superficiality of social norms, often through provocative behavior and sharp wit.

Cynics aimed to achieve freedom from desire and fear by minimizing dependence on external things. Their influence later inspired other philosophical movements, such as Stoicism, though Stoics adapted Cynic ideals in a more structured and less confrontational manner. Both Stoicism and Cynicism advocate for simplicity, self-discipline, and detachment from material possessions. However, Stoicism is more moderate, allowing for participation in society, while Cynics like Diogenes rejected social conventions entirely.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a spiritual and philosophical tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th-6th century BCE in India. It teaches that life is marked by suffering (dukkha), which arises from desire and attachment. The path to liberation involves eliminating cravings and ignorance through the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path—a guide to ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom. The ultimate goal is achieving nirvana, a state of liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).

Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness, compassion, and non-attachment to worldly desires, with various schools (such as Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna) developing across Asia, adapting the core teachings in different ways. Buddhism mirrors Stoicism in that both emphasize the impermanence of life, the importance of inner peace, and freedom from attachments. Yet, Buddhism focuses on achieving enlightenment through the cessation of desire, while Stoicism emphasizes rational acceptance and virtue.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement linked with thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche. It emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and the need to create meaning in a world that offers none inherently. Themes such as anxiety, alienation, and the absurd reflect the tension between the human search for meaning and an indifferent universe.

Like the Cynics, existentialists reject societal conventions and emphasize personal autonomy. Both promote inner freedom: Cynics through self-sufficiency and detachment, existentialists through accepting radical freedom and the burden of shaping one’s own life. However, existentialism focuses on anguish and responsibility, acknowledging that life may be marked by suffering, while Cynics seek peace by aligning with nature and minimizing dependence.

Existentialism’s introspective exploration of the self contrasts with the Cynic approach of social critique. While both encourage authenticity, existentialism frames life as a constant challenge of living meaningfully despite uncertainty, whereas Cynicism offers simplicity and detachment as a path to inner contentment.

Stoicism’s Influence and Legacy

Although the Stoic school formally declined by the 3rd century CE, its ideas have endured and continue to inspire modern thought.

During the Renaissance, Stoic themes were revived by humanists seeking guidance on ethics and personal integrity. The Enlightenment philosophers, particularly figures like Immanuel Kant, admired Stoic ethics.

In recent decades, Stoicism has experienced a resurgence as a practical philosophy for navigating the complexities of modern life. It is particularly popular in fields like self-improvement, leadership, and psychotherapy. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), a modern psychological approach, draws heavily from Stoic techniques, such as challenging irrational thoughts and focusing on what is within one’s control.

Stoicism offers a timeless framework for mastering the art of control. In a world filled with uncertainty, Stoicism reminds us to focus on what we can change—our thoughts, actions, and attitudes—while learning to accept what we cannot control. Its emphasis on virtue, reason, and emotional resilience provides valuable tools for finding peace in turbulent times. One of the chief complaints about living in the modern world is the lack of meaning available in our lives. We are surrounded by people who set poor examples, systems which seek to maximize economic gain at the sacrifice of morality, and culture which rewards childlike behavior. Many of us feel as though we are enslaved to the ways of the modern world, held hostage by financial burden and fear of change. It is difficult to avoid feeling as though one is aimlessly meandering, day by day, towards a future they do not truly desire. And in this void, we find our resilience begins to fade. The commute feels unbearable, the 8 hours at school or the office seem torturous, our relationships all feel hollow. However, even in the steepest trough of this void, we all know what we want and should do. Perhaps the answer is not what we want for the rest of our lives, or maybe even the rest of the year. But we do know what to do next, what our first step out of the darkness and towards the light is. The path toward the light surely will not be linear, it will curve and twist around on itself several times. It is not so important that you speed out of the dark, but that you never cease to proceed. You may pause to catch your breath, you may lie frozen for a while, but as long as you get back up from your rest and proceed to the route, you can feel confident that you are headed for brighter days. In the pursuit of putting your life back together, or perhaps together for the first time, the principles of stoicism can serve you well. If you never cease to pursue a virtuous being, your life will reflect back at you the love and effort you give to the world. Though it will not be over night, as enacting great change never is. Then, to serve as a guide on your path toward a virtuous life, reason will bring into focus what is possible. And even beyond what is possible, true reason will empower you to go far beyond what you ever thought you were capable of. For all of the skills you never learned, all of the experiences you passed on, and all of the life you thought you could not live, reason shows you that it is possible. And finally, on your journey through the rougher waters of life, learning to regulate and eventually master control of your emotions transforms you into a sturdy ship, one that withstands even the largest of tidal waves. Take a critical lens to every aspect of your life. Find where you are not satisfied, find what it is that you would like to change. And once you know where you would like to go, employ these principles, and never look back on your old life with anything other than joy. Even reflecting upon the worst of times, the strongest of habits, the lowest parts of yourself, express amor fati and memento mori. 

Additional Figures of Stoicism

Epictetus (55-135 CE) was a former slave who became a teacher of philosophy. Emphasized the distinction between what is within our control (our thoughts, actions) and what is not (external events). His ideas were compiled in the Enchiridion (Handbook).

•  “It’s not what happens to you, but how you react to it that matters.”

Seneca the Younger (4 BCE–65 CE) was a statesman, playwright, and advisor to Emperor Nero. Seneca wrote extensively on ethics and Stoicism’s application to daily life. His essays and letters encourage readers to cultivate equanimity amid adversity.

• “We suffer more often in imagination than in reality.”

Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE) was a Roman emperor and author of Meditations, a personal journal reflecting on Stoic principles. As a philosopher-king, Marcus Aurelius exemplified the ideal of leading with wisdom, self-discipline, and virtue.

• “You have power over your mind—not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”